1. Introduction and Dating

The Pyramid of the Sun, located within the archaeological zone of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico, stands as one of the largest pre-Columbian architectural structures in the Americas. Built approximately during the 1st–2nd century CE (around 100–250 CE), it belongs to the flourishing period of the Teotihuacan metropolis—a time when the city reached a population of 125,000–150,000 people, making it one of the most influential industrial, commercial, and religious centers in ancient Mesoamerica.

Despite its long-lasting prominence, the inhabitants of Teotihuacan left no written records. As a result, the origins, function, and culture behind the Pyramid of the Sun remain a mystery to modern archaeologists. However, through studying stratigraphy, architectural materials, and ritual artifacts, researchers have gradually reconstructed the significance and symbolic power of this monumental structure.

2. Location of Discovery and Archaeological Context

The Pyramid of the Sun is situated along the eastern side of the Avenue of the ᴅᴇᴀᴅ, the main axis of the ancient city of Teotihuacan, approximately 40 km northeast of modern-day Mexico City. Although European explorers recorded the site as early as the 16th century, systematic archaeological excavation only began in the early 20th century.

A major and defining phase of excavation took place between 1905 and 1910, led by Leopoldo Batres, the Inspector General of Monuments of Mexico. Conducted during the presidency of Porfirio Díaz, this effort was part of a national initiative to define Mexican idenтιтy through archaeology. Batres oversaw the clearing of the pyramid’s western façade, the reconstruction of its main stairway, and the exposure of its true monumental dimensions.

From the 1970s onward, Mexico’s National Insтιтute of Anthropology and History (INAH) continued advanced investigations, including geophysical surveys, material analyses, and extensive excavation of the substructures beneath the pyramid.

3. Materials and Construction Techniques

The Pyramid of the Sun was built primarily using three categories of material native to central Mexico:

3.1. Volcanic stone (Tezontle and andesite)

A lightweight, reddish volcanic stone found within a few kilometers of the site. Large blocks were used for the structural walls, while smaller pieces formed the exterior facings.

3.2. Lime mortar concrete (talud-tablero mortar)

A mixture of burnt lime, volcanic sand, and gravel, providing strong adhesion. The core of the pyramid consists of compacted earth and rubble, enclosed by stone veneers.

3.3. Natural mineral paints

Although mostly lost today, parts of the pyramid were once coated with a red pigment made from hemaтιтe, suggesting that the monument served not only functional and ritual purposes but also aesthetic and symbolic ones.

3.4. Construction Methods

The pyramid exemplifies the classic talud–tablero architectural style of Teotihuacan:

• Talud: an inward-sloping basal panel.

• Tablero: a rectangular vertical panel, often decorated.

The structure consists of five major tiers, rising to about 65 meters in height, with a base measuring about 220 meters per side—making it one of the largest pyramids in the world.

4. Significance and Functions of the Monument

Although its exact purpose remains uncertain, several interpretations have emerged based on archaeological evidence and spatial analysis:

4.1. A ritual center dedicated to a Sun deity

Astronomical studies indicate that the pyramid’s axis is tilted 15.25° off the north–south alignment, corresponding to key solar events. This strongly suggests a ceremonial function linked to solar worship.

4.2. A space for offerings and sacrificial rituals

Archaeologists uncovered animal offerings, stone masks, serpent effigies, and obsidian fragments—objects traditionally ᴀssociated with ceremonial activities—around the base of the pyramid.

4.3. A symbol of political power

Its immense size and prominent location imply its role as a statement of Teotihuacan’s social organization, labor mobilization capacity, and centralized authority.

4.4. The subterranean “sacred cave”

Beneath the pyramid lies a man-made tunnel ending in a chamber divided into four sections. This space resembles the mythical “place of creation,” suggesting that the pyramid may have been conceived as the cosmic birthplace of humanity within the Teotihuacan worldview.

5. Excavation History and Key Figures

5.1. Leopoldo Batres (1852–1926)

Batres played a central role in the early excavation and reconstruction of the pyramid.

• Contributions: Exposed the structure, preserved it from modern encroachment, and initiated its restoration.

• Limitations: Some reconstruction decisions are considered overly aggressive by current archaeological standards.

5.2. INAH and later research teams

Since the 1970s, scholars such as Linda Manzanilla, Rubén Cabrera Castro, and international collaborators have advanced research through:

• Ground-penetrating radar to study subsurface features.

• Material sourcing to track the origins of construction components.

• Excavation of underlying layers to refine chronological sequences.

These efforts have significantly deepened modern understanding of the pyramid’s construction, function, and cultural meaning.

6. Conclusion

The Pyramid of the Sun stands not only as a monumental architectural feat of the ancient world but also as tangible evidence of the technological, social, and religious achievements of the Teotihuacan civilization. More than 1,800 years after its construction, it remains a powerful testament to human ingenuity and continues to be one of the most studied archaeological monuments in Mesoamerica.